Technology options for sustainable livestock production in india
Citation of this paper. A survey was conducted in Simbe communal area of Gokwe south district in Zimbabwe to identify and catalogue constraints and opportunities for livestock production.
The study area comprised of wards divided into villages and then households within each village setup. Using the multistage sampling procedure, three wards were randomly selected followed by a random selection of five villages per ward. Four households were randomly selected from each village to participate in the study. Data collection entailed using a semi-structured questionnaire, interviews with key informants as well as focus group discussions. The data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences SPSS version Farmers kept a variety of livestock species of which most were indigenous breeds.
Chickens were the most common species kept. Although cattle were the second most common species kept, they were more important than all other species in the livelihoods of farmers due to their various roles. Free range extensive production system was the dominant practice. Among challenges faced by farmers the most critical were disease problems, feed and water shortages and inadequate extension service.
There were opportunities for improving livestock production in the area including demonstrations on the implementation of proven technologies, augmented by improved extension service provision, deployment of resources and dedicated monitoring systems. Diseases, draught power, feed shortages, house-holds, water. Livestock production is an important component of agricultural activities in developing countries.
It is the most important agricultural activity in most of the countries in southern Africa Mamabolo and Webb Livestock are kept for various uses including draught power, milk, meat, eggs and various cultural uses. They compliment cropping activities through the provision of manure for soil fertility maintenance, draught power for cultivation, transport, cash and food Powell et al ; Peden et al Livestock play an important role in these farming systems, as they offer opportunities for risk coping, farm diversification and intensification, and provide significant livelihood benefits Bossio This brings in another important dimension of i ntegrated crop-livestock farming which is the predominant system of production and subsistence in essentially all communal farming system s.
Household livestock holdings vary from a few to a hundred heads per household with varying ratios of cattle Bos taurusdonkeys Equus asinusand goats Capra hircus. These production systems are generally characterised by low productivity. For instance, the productivity of bovines is about 15 kg meat per person per year in developing countries versus 79 kg in the developed world Jahnke et al L ivestock production in communal areas in sub-Saharan Africa is constrained by a variety of factors.
Feed shortages during the dry season constitute the greatest challenge in terms of quantity and quality Masikati According to Kassam and co-workersthe main constraint to increasing livestock productivity and output is the lack of adequate supplies of good quality livestock feed in the dry season produced at a competitive cost and without jeopardizing household food security. Together with high incidences of diseases and mortality rates, f eed s hortages lead to low livestock productivity Masikati Unavailability of water is another common constraint.
In some areas, water may be available but is of insufficient quality to support healthy growth and performance. Masikati reported that water constraints were prevalent during the dry season, where animals had to walk distances of up to 14 km per day to access water. Water points are sometimes limited and large numbers of animals use the same points leading to high chances of spreading diseases and land degradation.
Peeling and Holden point to the failure of government services to provide veterinary health services. Other factors include p oor housing, low soil fertility for forage production and weak market chains for livestock and livestock products. The aim of this study was therefore to identify and catalogue constraints and opportunities for increasing livestock productivity in communal areas of Zimbabwe. Simbe communal area is in Gokwe South District, Zimbabwe.
The district lies in the northwest part of the country in the Midlands province in agro-ecological region III. The average rainfall in the region ranges between to mm per annum.
The livestock production system in a village ecosystem in the Rawain Valley, Uttarakhand, Central Himalaya: International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology: Vol 17, No 5
The rainfall pattern is skewed with most of the rainfall occurring from November to February. December and July are the wettest and driest months, respectively.
Simbe is characterized by predominantly sandy soils and the most common land tenure system is communal with a few resettlement schemes in some areas. It is about 20 km north-east of Gokwe town which is the largest town in the district.
The area is organised into wards, followed by villages and then households within the village setup. The multistage sampling procedure was used to come up with the participants in the survey. Three wards were randomly selected followed by a random selection of five villages per ward.
Sampling frames for the target population were obtained from the chief, headmen and village heads for each of the; wards, villages and house-holds, respectively. A semi-structured questionnaire and interviews with key informants were used to collect survey data. The questionnaire was designed to capture information such as: Data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences SPSS version The minimum, mean and maximum ages of the respondents were 21, Age distribution of respondents Livestock species and numbers All households interviewed kept indigenous chickens.
They were ranked first among livestock species kept, contrary to observations by Mlambo et al where cattle were ranked first followed by chickens. The mean flock size observed was A similar mean was observed by Muchadeyi and co-workers in Rushimga, Zimbabwe. Muchadeyi and co-workers also reported an average of 17 birds per household for rural Zimbabwe. Elsewhere, a mean of Chickens are an important source of protein for rural house-holds. They can also be a source of income as they are easy to sell when need arises compared to larger species like cattle.
According to Muchadeyithey are a form of quick off-takes thus they play a major role in the livelihoods of farmers. Cattle were the second most numerous species kept in the study area, with a mean herd size of 8.
Herd size ranged between 3 and 30 beasts per household. Scoones and Wolmer made similar observations for Chikombedzi, Zimbabwe. Ndlovu and co-workershowever, noted that cattle are the major livestock species in crop-livestock systems. This is a very common observation across all communal production systems.
For instance, Ndebele et al noted that cattle in Gwayi had numerous functions that they performed including draught power, rituals, milk and meat, manure and social security. Svotwa and co-workers also noted that cattle provided draught power for crop production. According to Jahnke et alruminant species are by far the most important livestock species kept in Africa. Mavedzenge et al and Peeling and Holden stated that cattle in the communal areas have multiple uses that include acting as a source of draught power, transport, milk, manure and savings among others.
Goat production was a very important activity in the study area. Flock sizes averaged 7. This study showed that goats are an important source of meat Other livestock species kept by farmers in the area include commercial chickens, pigs, donkeys and various other less popular poultry species like guinea fowl and ducks.
Technology Options for Sustainable Livestock Production in India Proceedings of the Workshop on Documentation, Adoption, and Impact of Livestock Technologies in India ICRISAT-Patancheru, India 18–19 January - OAR@ICRISAT
Livestock species and numbers kept in Simbe Species Mean Std dev. Uses of goats and cattle in communal areas Feeding and watering Farmers in the study area indicated that the natural veld was the major source of feed for their livestock Figure 3 while other species could scavenge around the yard. Commercial chicken broiler producers used the intensive system of production where feed was either bought in or formulated based on commercial concentrates.
All other poultry species utilized both the yard and natural veld as sources of feed Figure 3. This was very common especially for house-holds that had no fences around their home-steads. In all cases, supplements were in form of crop residues, mainly poor quality maize stalks. These are common practices in almost all communal livestock holdings in Zimbabwe with a few exceptions. For example, a study by Ndebele and co-workers revealed that all households indicated that their cattle grazed on communal rangelands all year round with no or little supplementation using stover and urea blocks.
The observation is supported by Sibanda and Ndlovu and Sibanda and Svotwa et al. Masikati reported that crop residues are the most common feed source for alleviating feed shortages during the dry season in a study that was conducted in Nkayi district in Zimbabwe. Supplementation is essential since the natural veld undergoes seasonal variation in both the quality and quantity of herbage given the seasonality of rainfall in Zimbabwe Sibanda Most crop-livestock production relies directly on rainfall, and adverse changes in quantity and temporal patterns of rainfall are a major risk to production Masikati Farmers in Simbe communal area relied on various water sources depending on location, season and capacity.
Less common sources included open and protected wells and springs. Distance to water sources varied with season and was invariably longer in the dry season ranging from 0 to 10 km. This posed challenges to farmers and limited access to water. The maximum distance reported in a study in Nkayi was longer 14 km than for this study area 10 km in the dry season Masikati These sources of water appeared to be unreliable. Water from dams and rivers got muddy in the rainy season while seasonal rivers, wells and some springs would dry up as the season advanced.
Other researchers have reported similar findings in various places. According to Ndebele et alcommunal cattle obtained water from rivers, wells and boreholes adding that sources were unreliable especially during the dry season. In a study by Svotwa and co-workersvegetation and water quality deterioration were assigned shanghai stock exchange market cap highest rank among problems affecting cattle production in Tanda ward in Manicaland province.
Common sources of feed for communal livestock Herd health management The major causes of offspring mortality were diseases and predators Figure 4. Species most commonly affected were cattle, goats and poultry species like chickens, turkeys and ducks. Various other studies point to diseases as major causes of losses in livestock production. A study by Ndebele et al revealed that c alves were the most vulnerable group, especially during the dry season and beginning of the rainy season.
In Namibia, a high stock spirits market cap of mortalities was reported among piglets and this was attributed to disease challenges Petrus et al According to Mwacharo and Druckerd iseases are a major constraint to the improvement of the livestock industry in the tropics as they decrease production onstar stock market increase morbidity and mortality.
It emerged from this study that the amazon stock marketwatch of conventional drugs was sporadic as farmers lacked capacity to identify disease problems in their herds. Predation was reported by In all other forms of livestock, additional work from home data entry jobs in nyc were attributed to unknown causes which farmers described as mysterious.
Binary options trading program account causes of offspring mortality in livestock Constraints to production Several challenges were highlighted by farmers as constraints to livestock production. Disease challenges were ranked highest Feed shortages were the second most popular Most of the respondents acknowledged that they were aware that diseases posed the worst threat to herd growth.
This appears to be a common observation among communal livestock producers with findings by o ther researchers generally making similar revelations Masimba et al adding that d isease challenges are a major constraint to the improvement of the livestock industry in the tropics Devendra et al This was attributed to the effect of diseases of reducing production and increasing morbidity and mortality Mwacharo and Drucker According to Masikatit he major constraint for cattle production in the smallholder farming systems is the high animal mortality through diseases.
In a study carried out by Amenu et alfarmers indicated shortage of feed, shortage of water and livestock diseases as the top ranked constraints for livestock production in Lume district in Ethiopia. E lsewhere in south-east Asia, the farmers in the studied sites rated the lack of feed and disease as the most important constraints to cattle production Pen et al Farmers in this study were not always able to identify common disease problems affecting their livestock herds.
Contrary 0 100 binary options strategies for directionless markets this observation, a study that was conducted in Zhombe communal area of Zimbabwe showed that farmers had a firm understanding of work from home data entry jobs in secunderabad flock health and managed to positively identify diseases affecting poultry flocks Mlambo et al Even more perturbing, is the proportion of farmers indicating that Extension services were indeed a problem Table 2.
It is probably due to a myriad of challenges associated with extension support delivery systems in communal areas. For instance, shortage of drugs, lack of transport among other resources, paralyzes extension support delivery e. Other researchers have reported the collapse of extension support systems. According to Peeling and Holdenwith a few exceptions, an overwhelming trend in both rich and poor countries has made government provision of clinical Veterinary Services a thing of the past.
In the event that extension staff is available, they are either incapacitated due to lack of equipment, transport and where do i get chicken bones for stock or are too few to be accessible when needed. Petrus et al stated t hat the actual causes of mortality in pigs could not be established from the farmers in Etayi, Namibia, because of lack of veterinary service in the area.
In the same study lack of extension services was ranked second among constraints to pig production. According to Morton and Matthewmanlivestock production extension services have developed around crop production, and remain tied largely to the seasonal nature of cropping adding that such a system is less useful for livestock production.
File not Found - OAR@ICRISAT
Livestock services and the ministries or departments that are responsible for them, are mainly run by vets, and focus on animal health issues: Some farmers indicated that they resorted to non-conventional disease control practices. Indeed this is not peculiar to this area, although the use of specific indigenous species might be.
Masimba and co-workers reported that r ural households in Gutu District reared indigenous poultry and made extensive use of ethnoveterinary medicines in poultry health management practices. These findings are also consistent with observations by Mwale and co-workers who reported the use of several indigenous plant species in livestock health management in Mushagashe, Zimbabwe. Organisations assisting livestock producers in Simbe communal area Feed shortages Challenges associated with feed availability were copper stock market indicator by Severity forex electronic trading api python shortages worsened during the dry season.
A common challenge is the seasonal nature of rainfall patterns in Zimbabwe and many parts of Africa leading to seasonal fluctuations in forage quality and quantity. However, p opulation pressure and emerging new markets created by urbanisation have caused an increase in land under cultivation, at the expense of grazing land Morton and Matthewman further exacerbating the problem.
According to Amenu et algrazing land is restricted to waste land, roadsides, edges of cropping fields and river banks, as well technology options for sustainable livestock production in india fallow land during the wet season and crop residues during the dry season associated with land competition for cropping. Elsewhere, farmers reported a seasonal fluctuation in livestock feed availability with the greatest feed scarcity being felt during the dry season in Rwanda, Uganda and Kenya Lukuyu et al Lack of knowledge, inadequate extension and sometimes ignorance, leads to serious problems related to feed shortages.
It has been reported that t he rate of adoption of livestock-related selling penny stocks scottrade in smallholder crop-livestock systems worldwide is consistently low Francis and Sibanda Farmers fail to take advantage of proven technologies aimed at improving feed quality and feed low quality roughage in the form of dried maize stover Svotwa et al among other crop residues Lukuyu et alyet poor nutrition results in low growth rates and low reproductive performance Pen et al Similar sources of water for communal livestock were reported by Amenu et al with the exception of lakes and stand 15 min binary options trading warning. The longest distance that farmers and herds would walk was 10 km Figure 8in comparison to 14 km reported by Masikati in Nkayi District of Zimbabwe.
Although distances of up to 10 km were encountered, the respondents indicated that this was limited to the dry season. Elsewhere, distances covered were relatively shorter ranging from 5 — 8 km, however cases of water scarcity were reported in Rwanda, Uganda and some parts of Kenya Lukuyu et al Svotwa and co-workers reported similar problems including inadequacy of watering points as the major constraints in a study conducted in Tanda ward in Manicaland province of Zimbabwe. Charlotte and Mandsen as well as Lukuyu et al in similar studies reported that lack of fresh water caused a reduction in feed intake imposing a limit on milk yield and growth rate.
Problems commonly encountered in watering livestock. Variation in distance to water sources between seasons Breeding and selection The majority of farmers kept indigenous breeds of livestock including crosses between exotic and indigenous breeds.
A few exotic breeds were fundusze inwestycyjne forex in very small numbers. It was interesting, however, to note that communal farmers had some knowledge of selection of animals for breeding purposes. Farmers indicated that they practiced selection of individuals to breed for cattle, goats technology options for sustainable livestock production in india chickens Figure 9.
Selection of animals for breeding was based on the size of a particular animal cattle - This probably indicates that farmers are not entirely ignorant of laws of genetic inheritance; however, the low proportions of farmers selecting animals on the basis of performance of parents may be indicative of weak record keeping or absence there-of.
Some farmers prefer indigenous breeds because they are tolerant to diseases and utilize feed of low nutrient density to produce good quality meat and perform well even without very sophisticated management Petrus et al According to Petrus et aluse of improved breeds in developing countries presents farmers with a major challenge as the breeds require intensive management for them to realize full production potential.
Genetic factors do not appear to be a restriction in Africa. Local breeds are able to make the best use of their actual environment, and, with better management, performance can be improved Jahnke et al There seems to be scope for improving the performance of the communal livestock production sector. According to Musemwa et althe use of locally adapted breeds can help overcome most communal cattle production constraints.
Crossbreeding of low-yielding indigenous breeds with high-yielding exotic breeds has been widely acknowledged as a valuable strategy to improve animal productivity Birthal and Pathasarathy Rao It appears it would be easy to introduce and promote such practices in areas such as this one since farmers demonstrate some knowledge of breeding and selection, though rudimentary.
Selection of animals for breeding Conclusion and recommendations The findings from the study suggested the existence of various challenges to livestock production including diseases resulting in high mortality rates, feed and water shortages as well as sub-optimal extension services. Opportunities, however, exist for improving livestock production in communal areas and some of the possible technologies are not new to farmers.
There is need for promotion of strategies to widen the feed resource base, promote feed conservation and improve nutritive value.
Various ways of improving offspring health and nutrition management to reduce mortality could also be employed. It seems what is required is a proper demonstration on implementation of proven technologies and practices augmented by improved extension service provision and deployment of resources backed by dedicated monitoring systems. Birthal P and Parthasarathy Rao P eds Technology options for sustainable livestock production in India: New DelhiIndia and PatancheruAndhra Pradesh, India: National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research and International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
Order code CPE Bossio D Livestock and water: Volume 31, Article 2: Devendra C, Thomas D, Jabbar M and Zerbini E Improvement of Livestock Production in Crop-Animal Systems in Agro-Ecological Zones of South Asia. Dovie D B K, Shackleton C M and Witkowski E T F Valuation of communal area livestock benefits, rural livelihoods and related policy issues. Land Use Policy Volume 23, Article 3, p — Retrieved March 13,from http: Charlotte P and J Madsen Constraints and opportunities for improved milk production and calf rearing in Sanyati communal farming area, Zimbabwe.
Livestock Research for Rural Development Volume 10, Article 1 Retrieved March 16,from http: Francis J, Mudamburi B and Chikwanda B in: Starkey P and Kaumbutho P eds Meeting the challenges of animal traction. A resource book of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa ATNESAHarare, Zimbabwe. Intermediate Technology Publications, London.
Francis J and Sibanda S Participatory action research experiences in smallholder dairy farming in Zimbabwe. Jahnke H E, Tacher G, Keil P and Rojat D Livestock production in tropical Africa, with special reference to the tsetse-affected zone. In Livestock production in tsetse-affected areas of Africapp. Proceedings of a meeting of the African Trypanotolerant Livestock Network, Nairobi, 23 - 27 November Nairobi, International Livestock Centre for Africa and the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases.
Kassam A, Kueneman E, Kebe B, Ouedraogo S and Youdeowei A Enhancing Crop-Livestock Systems in Conservation Agriculture for Sustainable Production Intensification: A Farmer Discovery Process Going to Scale in Burkina Faso.
Integrated Crop Management Volume. Khalafalla A I Awad S and Hass W Village Poultry Production in Sudan: Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Khartoum North, Sudan. Retrieved September 8, from http: Outlook on Agriculture Volume. Lukuyu B A, Kitalyi A, Franzel S, Duncan A and Baltenweck I Constraints and options to enhancing production of high quality feeds in dairy production in Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda ICRAF Working Paper no.
South African Journal of Animal Science Volume 30, Article 2. Mamabolo M J and Webb E C Goat production survey - fundamental aspects to model goat production systems in Southern Africa: Case Study - Agricultural Commission.
Masikati P Improving the water productivity of integrated crop-livestock systems in the semi-arid tropics of Zimbabwe: Retrieved January 17,from http: Livestock Research for Rural Development.
Retrieved March 20,from http: Mavedzenge B Z, Mahenehene J, Murimbarimba F, Scoones I and Wolmer W Changes in the Livestock Sector in Zimbabwe Following Land Reform: The Case of Masvingo Province.
A Report of a Discussion Workshop. Retrieved May 14,from http: Mlambo T, Mbiriri D T, Mutibvu T and Kashangura M T Village chicken production systems in Zhombe communal area of Zimbabwe. Livestock Research for Rural Development 23 Retrieved March 15,from http: Morton J and Matthewman R Improving Livestock Production Through Extension: Information Needs, Institutions and Opportunities. Muchadeyi F C Assessment of Genetic Diversity of Zimbabwe Village Chicken Eco-types. Cuvillier Verlag, Gottingen Germany.
Muchadeyi F C, Sibanda S, Kusina N T, Kusina J and Makuza S M The village chicken production system in Rushinga District of Zimbabwe. Livestock Research for Rural Development Volume. Retrieved March 26, from http: Musemwa L, Mushunje A, Chimonyo M, Fraser G, Mapiye C and Muchenje V Nguni cattle marketing constraints and opportunities in the communal areas of South Africa: African Journal of Agricultural Research Volume.
Mwacharo J M and Drucker A G Production objectives and management strategies of livestock-keepers in Southeast Kenya: Tropical Animal Health and Production. Retrieved March 17,from http: Mwale M, Bhebhe E, Chimonyo M and Halimani T E Use of herbal plants in poultry health management in the Mushagashe small-scale commercial farming area in Zimbabwe. Volume 3, Article 2: Ndebele J J, Muchenje V, Mapiye C, Chimonyo M, Musemwa L and Ndlovu T Cattle breeding management practices in the Gwayi smallholder farming area of South-Western Zimbabwe.
Volume 19, Article Retrieved March 1,from http: Ndlovu R L, Bwakura T and Topps J H In: Starkey P and Fielding D edsDonkeys, people and development. A resource book of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa ATNESA.
ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation CTAWageningen, the Netherlands. Ndlovu L R and Sibanda S Some constraints to adoption of agro-by-products research results by the communal farmers of Zimbabwe. International Livestock Research Institute. Retrieved February 12,from http: Peden D, Tadesse G, Misra A K, Awad Amed F, Astatke A, Ayalneh W, Herrero M, Kiwuwa G, Kumsa T, Mati B, Mpairwe D, Wassenaar T, Yimegnuhal A Livestock and water for human development.
Peeling D and Holden S The effectiveness of community-based animal health workers, for the poor, for communities and for public safety. Retrieved March 28,from http: Conference on International Research on Food Security, Natural Resource Management and Rural Development. University of Hamburg, October Petrus N P, Mpofu I, Schneider M B and Nepembe M The constraints and potentials of pig production among communal farmers in Etayi Constituency of Namibia.
Volume 23, Article Retrieved April1,from http: Powell J M, Pearson R A and Hiernaux P H Review and interpretation.
Crop-livestock interactions in the West African Drylands. Scoones I and Wolmer W Pathways of Change: Crops, Livestock and Livelihoods in Africa, lessons from Ethiopia, Mali and Zimbabwe.
Institute of Developmental Studies, University of Sussex. Retrieved March 29,from http: Sibanda S The use of crop residues in livestock production systems in the communal areas of Zimbabwe, pp. Towards optimal feeding of agricultural by-products to livestock in Africa.
Proceedings of a workshop held at the University of Alexandria, Egypt. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Svotwa E, Hamudikuwanda H and Makarau A Influence of climate and weather on cattle production semi arid communal areas of Zimbabwe. Electronic journal of environmental, agricultural and food chemistry. Volume 6, Article 2, pp Received 17 May ; Accepted 2 August ; Published 3 September Age distribution of respondents.
Uses of goats and cattle in communal areas. Common sources of feed for communal livestock. Major causes of offspring mortality in livestock. Organisations assisting livestock producers in Simbe communal area. Strategies to avert feed shortages.
Variation in distance to water sources between seasons. Selection of animals for breeding. Livestock Research for Rural Development 24 9 Livestock species and numbers kept in Simbe.
Ranking of common problems faced by farmers. Water access and quality.